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We Can Remove the Indians Again

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Early 19th-century The states domestic policy

Indian removal
Trails of Tears en.png

Routes of southern removals
Location United States
Date 1830–1847
Target Native Americans in the eastern United states of america

Attack type

 Population transfer, indigenous cleansing, genocide
Deaths 8,000+ (lowest estimate)
Perpetrators United States
Motive Expansionism

Indian removal was the United States government policy of forced displacement of cocky-governing tribes of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands in the eastern Usa to lands due west of the Mississippi River – specifically, to a designated Indian Territory (roughly, present-twenty-four hours Oklahoma).[1] [2] [3] The Indian Removal Act, the cardinal law which authorized the removal of Native tribes, was signed by Andrew Jackson in 1830. Although Jackson took a hard line on Indian removal, the police was enforced primarily during the Martin Van Buren administration. After the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830, approximately 60,000 members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations (including thousands of their blackness slaves) were forcibly removed from their bequeathed homelands, with thousands dying during the Trail of Tears.[4] [5] [6] [7]

Indian removal, a popular policy among white settlers, was a consequence of actions past European settlers in North America during the colonial period and so past the United States government (and its citizens) until the mid-20th century.[8] [nine] The policy traced its origins to the assistants of James Monroe, although it addressed conflicts between European and Native Americans which had occurred since the 17th century and were escalating into the early 19th century (every bit white settlers pushed westward in the cultural belief of manifest destiny). Historical views of Indian removal have been reevaluated since that fourth dimension. Widespread contemporary credence of the policy, due in part to the popular encompass of the concept of manifest destiny, has given fashion to a more-somber perspective. Historians have described the removal of Native Americans equally paternalism,[10] [11] ethnic cleansing,[12] or genocide.[thirteen] [14]

Revolutionary background [edit]

American leaders in the Revolutionary and early on US eras debated about whether Native Americans should be treated as individuals or as nations.[fifteen]

Annunciation of Independence [edit]

In the indictment section of the Declaration of Independence, the Indigenous inhabitants of the Us are referred to as "merciless Indian Savages", reflecting a commonly held view at the time.

Benjamin Franklin [edit]

In a typhoon "Proposed Articles of Confederation" presented to the Continental Congress on May 10, 1775, Benjamin Franklin called for a "perpetual Brotherhood" with the Indians in the nation about to be born, especially with the six nations of the Iroquois Confederacy:[16] [17]

Article Eleven. A perpetual alliance offensive and defensive is to be entered into as soon as may be with the Six Nations; their Limits to exist ascertained and secured to them; their Country not to be encroached on, nor whatever private or Colony Purchases fabricated of them hereafter to be held good, nor any Contract for Lands to exist made just betwixt the Great Council of the Indians at Onondaga and the General Congress. The Boundaries and Lands of all the other Indians shall also exist ascertained and secured to them in the same way; and Persons appointed to reside among them in proper Districts, who shall accept care to forestall Injustice in the Merchandise with them, and exist enabled at our general Expense past occasional small Supplies, to relieve their personal Wants and Distresses. And all Purchases from them shall exist by the Congress for the General Advantage and Benefit of the United Colonies.

Early congressional acts [edit]

The Confederation Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (a precedent for U.S. territorial expansion would occur for years to come), calling for the protection of Native American "property, rights, and liberty";[18] the U.S. Constitution of 1787 (Article I, Department eight) made Congress responsible for regulating commerce with the Indian tribes. In 1790, the new U.S. Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes.[xix]

George Washington [edit]

President George Washington, in his 1790 accost to the Seneca Nation which called the pre-Constitutional Indian country-auction difficulties "evils", said that the instance was now altered and pledged to uphold Native American "just rights".[20] [21] In March and April 1792, Washington met with l tribal chiefs in Philadelphia—including the Iroquois—to discuss strengthening the friendship betwixt them and the U.s.a..[22] Later that twelvemonth, in his fourth almanac message to Congress, Washington stressed the need to build peace, trust, and commerce with Native Americans:[23]

I cannot dismiss the subject of Indian affairs without once again recommending to your consideration the expediency of more acceptable provision for giving energy to the laws throughout our interior borderland, and for restraining the commission of outrages upon the Indians; without which all pacific plans must prove nugatory. To enable, by competent rewards, the employment of qualified and trusty persons to reside among them, every bit agents, would too contribute to the preservation of peace and adept neighbourhood. If, in addition to these expedients, an eligible plan could be devised for promoting civilization among the friendly tribes, and for carrying on trade with them, upon a scale equal to their wants, and nether regulations calculated to protect them from imposition and extortion, its influence in cementing their interests with our'southward [sic] could not but be considerable.[24]

In his 7th almanac message to Congress in 1795, Washington intimated that if the U.Southward. government wanted peace with the Indians information technology must acquit peacefully; if the U.Southward. wanted raids by Indians to stop, raids by American "frontier inhabitants" must also stop.[25] [26]

Thomas Jefferson [edit]

In his Notes on the Country of Virginia (1785), Thomas Jefferson defended Native American culture and marvelled at how the tribes of Virginia "never submitted themselves to whatsoever laws, whatever coercive power, any shadow of regime" due to their "moral sense of right and incorrect".[27] [28] He wrote to the Marquis de Chastellux later that year, "I believe the Indian so to be in body and mind equal to the whiteman".[29] Jefferson's desire, as interpreted by Francis Paul Prucha, was for Native Americans to intermix with European Americans and become ane people.[thirty] [31] To achieve that end as president, Jefferson offered U.Southward. citizenship to some Indian nations and proposed offering them credit to facilitate trade.[32] [33]

By 1803, however, in a alphabetic character to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson made it clear he saw the necessity of dispossessing Native Americans of their lands:

In this style our settlements will gradually circumbscribe & arroyo the Indians, & they will in time either incorporate with us as citizens of the United states of america. or remove across the Missisipi.The sometime is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves. Just in the whole course of this, information technology is essential to cultivate their beloved. As to their fear, we presume that our force & their weakness is at present so visible that they must see we accept only to shut our paw to crush them.[34]

Jeffersonian policy [edit]

As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals. He wanted to clinch that the Native nations (not foreign nations) were tightly bound to the new United States, equally he considered the security of the nation to be paramount.[35] He also wanted to "civilize" them into adopting an agricultural, rather than a hunter-gatherer, lifestyle.[30] These goals would exist achieved through treaties and the evolution of merchandise.[36]

Jefferson initially promoted an American policy which encouraged Native Americans to become assimilated, or "civilized".[37] He fabricated sustained efforts to win the friendship and cooperation of many Native American tribes as president, repeatedly articulating his want for a united nation of whites and Indians[38] every bit in his November iii, 1802, letter to Seneca spiritual leader Handsome Lake:

Go along and then, blood brother, in the great reformation you take undertaken ... In all your enterprises for the practiced of your people, you may count with confidence on the assistance and protection of the The states, and on the sincerity and zeal with which I am myself animated in the furthering of this humane work. Yous are our brethren of the same land; we wish your prosperity equally brethren should exercise. Cheerio.[39]

When a delegation from the Cherokee Nation's Upper Towns lobbied Jefferson for the full and equal citizenship promised to Indians living in American territory past George Washington, his response indicated that he was willing to grant citizenship to those Indian nations who sought it.[xl] In his eighth almanac bulletin to Congress on November 8, 1808, he presented a vision of white and Indian unity:

With our Indian neighbors the public peace has been steadily maintained ... And, mostly, from a confidence that nosotros consider them as office of ourselves, and cherish with sincerity their rights and interests, the attachment of the Indian tribes is gaining strength daily... and will amply give u.s. for the justice and friendship practiced towards them ... [O]ne of the two cracking divisions of the Cherokee nation have at present nether consideration to solicit the citizenship of the United States, and to exist identified with u.s.a. in-laws and government, in such progressive manner equally we shall call up best.[41]

Every bit some of Jefferson'due south other writings illustrate, however, he was ambivalent about Indian assimilation and used the words "exterminate" and "extirpate" about tribes who resisted American expansion and were willing to fight for their lands.[42] Jefferson intended to change Indian lifestyles from hunting and gathering to farming, largely through "the decrease of game rendering their subsistence by hunting insufficient".[43] He expected the change to agriculture to make them dependent on white Americans for goods, and more probable to surrender their land or let themselves to be moved west of the Mississippi River.[44] [45] In an 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote:[46]

Should any tribe exist foolhardy plenty to have upward the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the but condition of peace, would be an instance to others, and a furtherance of our concluding consolidation.[47]

In that alphabetic character, Jefferson spoke about protecting the Indians from injustices perpetrated past whites:

Our system is to live in perpetual peace with the Indians, to cultivate an appreciating attachment from them, by everything just and liberal which nosotros can do for them within ... reason, and past giving them effectual protection against wrongs from our ain people.[48]

According to the treaty of February 27, 1819, the U.S. regime would offer citizenship and 640 acres (260 ha) of land per family to Cherokees who lived due east of the Mississippi.[49] [50] [51] Native American land was sometimes purchased, by treaty or under duress. The idea of land commutation, that Native Americans would give upwardly their land e of the Mississippi in substitution for a like amount of territory west of the river, was starting time proposed by Jefferson in 1803 and first incorporated into treaties in 1817 (years after the Jefferson presidency). The Indian Removal Act of 1830 included this concept.[45]

John C. Calhoun's plan [edit]

Under President James Monroe, Secretarial assistant of War John C. Calhoun devised the first plans for Indian removal. Monroe approved Calhoun's plans by late 1824 and, in a special message to the Senate on Jan 27, 1825, requested the creation of the Arkansaw and Indian Territories; the Indians e of the Mississippi would voluntarily exchange their lands for lands w of the river. The Senate accepted Monroe'due south request, and asked Calhoun to draft a nib which was killed in the House of Representatives past the Georgia delegation. President John Quincy Adams causeless the Calhoun–Monroe policy, and was adamant to remove the Indians past non-forceful means;[52] [53] Georgia refused to consent to Adams' request, forcing the president to forge a treaty with the Cherokees granting Georgia the Cherokee lands.[54] On July 26, 1827, the Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution (modeled on that of the United States) which declared that they were an independent nation with jurisdiction over their own lands. Georgia contended that it would not countenance a sovereign state within its ain territory, and asserted its authority over Cherokee territory.[55] When Andrew Jackson became president every bit the candidate of the newly-organized Democratic Political party, he agreed that the Indians should be forced to exchange their eastern lands for western lands (including relocation) and vigorously enforced Indian removal.[56] [54]

Opposition to removal from U.S. citizens [edit]

Although Indian removal was a popular policy, it was likewise opposed on legal and moral grounds; it also ran counter to the formal, customary diplomatic interaction between the federal government and the Native nations. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote the widely-published letter "A Protest Against the Removal of the Cherokee Indians from the State of Georgia" in 1838, soon before the Cherokee removal. Emerson criticizes the government and its removal policy, saying that the removal treaty was illegitimate; it was a "sham treaty", which the U.S. regime should not uphold.[57] He describes removal as "such a dereliction of all faith and virtues, such a denial of justice…in the dealing of a nation with its own allies and wards since the earth was made…a general expression of despondency, of disbelief, that any goodwill accrues from a remonstrance on an act of fraud advertizement robbery, appeared in those men to whom nosotros naturally turn for aid and counsel".[58] Emerson concludes his alphabetic character by saying that it should not be a political result, urging President Martin Van Buren to preclude the enforcement of Cherokee removal. Other people and social organizations throughout the country also opposed removal.[59]

Native American response to removal [edit]

Native groups reshaped their governments, fabricated constitutions and legal codes, and sent delegates to Washington to negotiate policies and treaties to uphold their autonomy and ensure federally-promised protection from white states.[60] They thought that acclimating, every bit the U.S. wanted them to, would stem removal policy and create a better relationship with the federal government and surrounding states.

Native American nations had differing views about removal. Although most wanted to remain on their native lands and do anything possible to ensure that, others believed that removal to a nonwhite area was their simply selection to maintain their autonomy and culture.[61] The U.S. used this division to forge removal treaties with (often) minority groups who became convinced that removal was the best pick for their people.[62] These treaties were often not acknowledged by almost of a nation'due south people. When Congress ratified the removal treaty, the federal government could apply military force to remove Native nations if they had moved (or had begun moving) by the date stipulated in the treaty.[ citation needed ]

Indian Removal Human action [edit]

See caption

When Andrew Jackson became president of the Usa in 1829, his government took a hard line on Indian removal;[63] Jackson abandoned his predecessors' policy of treating Indian tribes as separate nations, aggressively pursuing all Indians e of the Mississippi who claimed constitutional sovereignty and independence from country laws. They were to exist removed to reservations in Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi (present-solar day Oklahoma), where they could exist without state interference. At Jackson'due south request, Congress began a debate on an Indian-removal bill. Afterwards trigger-happy disagreement, the Senate passed the nib past a 28–19 vote; the Business firm had narrowly passed it, 102–97. Jackson signed the Indian Removal Human activity into law on May 30, 1830.[64]

That year, most of the Five Civilized Tribes—the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee—lived east of the Mississippi. The Indian Removal Act implemented federal-government policy towards its Indian populations, moving Native American tribes east of the Mississippi to lands w of the river. Although the act did not qualify the forced removal of indigenous tribes, it enabled the president to negotiate land-exchange treaties.[65]

Choctaw [edit]

On September 27, 1830, the Choctaw signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek and became the get-go Native American tribe to exist removed. The agreement was one of the largest transfers of land between the U.S. authorities and Native Americans which was not the result of war. The Choctaw signed abroad their remaining traditional homelands, opening them up for European-American settlement in Mississippi Territory. When the tribe reached Little Rock, a chief called its trek a "trail of tears and death".[66]

In 1831, French historian and political scientist Alexis de Tocqueville witnessed an exhausted group of Choctaw men, women and children emerging from the wood during an uncommonly cold winter near Memphis, Tennessee,[67] on their way to the Mississippi to be loaded onto a steamboat. He wrote,

In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't picket without feeling i's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil only sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We ... sentry the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.[68]

Cherokee [edit]

While the Indian Removal Human action fabricated the move of the tribes voluntary, it was often abused past government officials. The best-known example is the Treaty of New Echota, which was signed by a small-scale faction of twenty Cherokee tribal members (not the tribal leadership) on December 29, 1835.[69] Almost of the Cherokee later blamed the faction and the treaty for the tribe's forced relocation in 1838.[70] An estimated 4,000 Cherokee died in the march, which is known every bit the Trail of Tears.[71] Missionary organizer Jeremiah Evarts urged the Cherokee Nation to take its case to the U.S. Supreme Court.[72]

The Marshall court heard the case in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), but declined to dominion on its merits; the courtroom declaring that the Native American tribes were not sovereign nations, and could not "maintain an activeness" in U.S. courts.[73] [74] In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), individual states had no authority in American Indian affairs.[75] [76]

The state of Georgia defied the Supreme Court ruling,[75] and the want of white settlers and land speculators for Indian lands continued unabated;[77] some whites claimed that Indians threatened peace and security. The Georgia legislature passed a constabulary forbidding whites from living on Indian territory later March 31, 1831, without a license from the state; this excluded white missionaries who opposed Indian removal.[78] [79]

Seminole [edit]

The Seminole refused to leave their Florida lands in 1835, leading to the Second Seminole War. Osceola was a Seminole leader of the people's fight against removal. Based in the Everglades, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the U.S. Army in a number of battles. In 1837, Osceola was duplicitously captured by order of U.S. General Thomas Jesup when Osceola came under a flag of truce to negotiate peace about Fort Peyton.[lxxx] Osceola died in prison house of illness; the war resulted in over one,500 U.S. deaths, and price the government $20 million.[81] Some Seminole traveled deeper into the Everglades, and others moved west. The removal continued, and a number of wars broke out over country.[ citation needed ]

Muskogee (Creek) [edit]

In the backwash of the Treaties of Fort Jackson and the Washington, the Muscogee were confined to a small strip of land in nowadays-day east central Alabama. The Creek national council signed the Treaty of Cusseta in 1832, ceding their remaining lands east of the Mississippi to the U.Southward. and accepting relocation to the Indian Territory. Most Muscogee were removed to the territory during the Trail of Tears in 1834, although some remained behind. Although the Creek War of 1836 ended government attempts to convince the Creek population to get out voluntarily, Creeks who had non participated in the war were not forced w (as others were). The Creek population was placed into camps and told that they would be relocated before long. Many Creek leaders were surprised by the quick deviation, simply could do little to challenge information technology. The xvi,000 Creeks were organized into five detachments who were to be sent to Fort Gibson. The Creek leaders did their best to negotiate improve conditions, and succeeded in obtaining wagons and medicine. To ready for the relocation, Creeks began to deconstruct their spiritual lives; they burned piles of lightwood over their ancestors' graves to honour their memories, and polished the sacred plates which would travel at the front end of each group. They also prepared financially, selling what they could not bring. Many were swindled by local merchants out of valuable possessions (including land), and the military had to intervene. The detachments began moving west in September 1836, facing harsh conditions. Despite their preparations, the detachments faced bad roads, worse weather condition, and a lack of drinkable water. When all five detachments reached their destination, they recorded their death price. The first detachment, with two,318 Creeks, had 78 deaths; the 2d had three,095 Creeks, with 37 deaths. The third had 2,818 Creeks, and 12 deaths; the fourth, 2,330 Creeks and 36 deaths. The 5th detachment, with 2,087 Creeks, had 25 deaths.[82]

Friends and Brothers – Past permission of the Great Spirit to a higher place, and the vocalization of the people, I have been made President of the U.s., and at present speak to you as your Father and friend, and asking you to heed. Your warriors accept known me long. Yous know I love my white and cherry children, and always speak with a straight, and not with a forked tongue; that I take always told you the truth ... Where y'all now are, you lot and my white children are too almost to each other to live in harmony and peace. Your game is destroyed, and many of your people volition not piece of work and till the earth. Across the great River Mississippi, where a office of your nation has gone, your Father has provided a state big enough for all of you, and he advises you to remove to it. At that place your white brothers volition non trouble you; they volition have no claim to the country, and y'all can alive upon it you and all your children, as long as the grass grows or the water runs, in peace and enough. Information technology will exist yours forever. For the improvements in the country where y'all now live, and for all the stock which y'all cannot take with y'all, your Begetter will pay yous a fair price ...

—President Andrew Jackson addressing the Creek Nation, 1829[64]

Chickasaw [edit]

Unlike other tribes, who exchanged lands, the Chickasaw were to receive financial compensation of $3 million from the United states for their lands east of the Mississippi River.[83] [84] They reached an agreement to buy of land from the previously-removed Choctaw in 1836 later a bitter five-year argue, paying the Chocktaw $530,000 for the westernmost Choctaw land.[85] [86] Most of the Chickasaw moved in 1837 and 1838.[87] The $iii meg owed to the Chickasaw past the U.Due south. went unpaid for about 30 years.[88]

Aftermath [edit]

The Five Civilized Tribes were resettled in the new Indian Territory.[89] The Cherokee occupied the northeast corner of the territory and a 70-mile-wide (110 km) strip of land in Kansas on its border with the territory.[90] Some indigenous nations resisted the forced migration more strongly.[91] [92] The few who stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups,[93] including the Eastern Band of Cherokee (based in Due north Carolina),[94] [95] [96] the Mississippi Ring of Choctaw Indians,[97] [98] the Seminole Tribe of Florida,[99] [100] [101] and the Creeks in Alabama[102] (including the Poarch Band).[103] [104] [105]

Removals [edit]

Due north [edit]

Tribes in the Sometime Northwest were smaller and more fragmented than the Five Civilized Tribes, so the treaty and emigration procedure was more piecemeal.[106] Following the Northwest Indian State of war, most of the mod state of Ohio was taken from native nations in the 1795 Treaty of Greenville. Tribes such as the already-displaced Lenape (Delaware tribe), Kickapoo and Shawnee, were removed from Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio during the 1820s.[107] The Potawatomi were forced out of Wisconsin and Michigan in belatedly 1838, and were resettled in Kansas Territory. Communities remaining in present-day Ohio were forced to move to Louisiana, which was then controlled by Spain.[108]

Bands of Shawnee,[109] Ottawa, Potawatomi,[110] Sauk, and Meskwaki (Trick) signed treaties and relocated to the Indian Territory.[111] In 1832, the Sauk leader Black Hawk led a ring of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois; the U.S. Army and Illinois militia defeated Blackness Hawk and his warriors in the Blackness Hawk War, and the Sauk and Pull a fast one on were relocated to present-day Iowa.[112] The Miami were split, with many of the tribe resettled due west of the Mississippi River during the 1840s.[113]

In the Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek (1838), the Senecas transferred all their land in New York (except for one small reservation) in exchange for 200,000 acres (810 km2) of land in Indian Territory. The federal government would exist responsible for the removal of the Senecas who opted to go westward, and the Ogden Country Company would acquire their New York lands. The lands were sold past government officials, however, and the proceeds were deposited in the U.S. Treasury. Maris Bryant Pierce, a "young principal" served as a lawyer representing iv territories of the Seneca tribe, starting in 1838.[114] [115] The Senecas asserted that they had been defrauded, and sued for redress in the Court of Claims. The case was not resolved until 1898, when the United states awarded $1,998,714.46 in compensation to "the New York Indians".[116] The U.S. signed treaties with the Senecas and the Tonawanda Senecas in 1842 and 1857, respectively. Under the treaty of 1857, the Tonawandas renounced all claim to lands west of the Mississippi in substitution for the right to buy back the Tonawanda Reservation from the Ogden State Company.[117] Over a century later, the Senecas purchased a 9-acre (three.6 ha) plot (part of their original reservation) in downtown Buffalo to build the Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino.[118]

S [edit]

Southern removals
Nation Population earlier removal Treaty and twelvemonth Major emigration Full removed Number remaining Deaths during removal Deaths from warfare
Choctaw xix,554[119] + White citizens of the Choctaw Nation + 500 Black slaves Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830) 1831–1836 xv,000[120] 5,000–vi,000[121] [122] [123] two,000–four,000+ (cholera) none
Creek (Muscogee) 22,700 + 900 Black slaves[124] Cusseta (1832) 1834–1837 19,600[125] Several hundred 3,500 (illness subsequently removal)[126] Unknown (Creek War of 1836)
Chickasaw four,914 + i,156 Blackness slaves[127] Pontotoc Creek (1832) 1837–1847 over iv,000[127] Several hundred 500–800 none
Cherokee 16,542 + 201 married White + one,592 Black slaves[128] New Echota (1835) 1836–1838 16,000[129] 1,500 2,000–4,000[130] [131] none
Seminole 3,700–5,000[132] + fugitive slaves Payne'southward Landing (1832) 1832–1842 2,833[133]–four,000[134] 250[133]–500[135] 700 (Second Seminole War)

Inverse perspective [edit]

Historical views of Indian removal take been reevaluated since that time. Widespread contemporary credence of the policy, due in part to the pop cover of the concept of manifest destiny, has given style to a more than-somber perspective. The removals have been described by historians to paternalism,[10] [xi] ethnic cleansing,[12] or genocide. Historian David Stannard has called it genocide.[13] [14]

Jackson's reputation [edit]

Andrew Jackson's reputation has been negatively impacted by his handling of the Indians. Historians who admire Jackson's strong presidential leadership, such equally Arthur Thousand. Schlesinger, Jr., would gloss over the Indian Removal in a footnote. In 1969, Francis Paul Prucha wrote that Jackson's removal of the Five Civilized Tribes from the hostile white environs of the Old Due south to Oklahoma probably saved them.[136] Jackson was sharply attacked by political scientist Michael Rogin and historian Howard Zinn during the 1970s, primarily on this effect; Zinn chosen him an "exterminator of Indians".[137] [138] According to historians Paul R. Bartrop and Steven L. Jacobs, still, Jackson's policies practise not run into the criteria for physical or cultural genocide.[xi]

See as well [edit]

  • Human activity for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory (Curtis Act), 1898
  • Forced Fee Patenting Act (Burke Act), 1906
  • Wheeler–Howard Deed
  • Nelson Act of 1889, Minnesota's version of the Dawes Act
  • Cultural assimilation of Native Americans
  • Aboriginal title in the U.s.
  • Competency Commission
  • Land run
  • Diminishment
  • Bully Māhele
  • Land Buy-Dorsum Program for Tribal Nations
  • Checkerboarding (land)
  • Dawes Act

Citations and notes [edit]

  1. ^ Information technology has been called indigenous cleansing. The National Museum of the American Indian refers to the policy as genocide.
  2. ^ Gary Clayton Anderson (2014). Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Law-breaking That Should Haunt America. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 7. ISBN978-0-8061-4508-2. Even though the term "indigenous cleansing" has been practical mainly to the history of nations other than the Us, no term better fits the policy of U.s.a. "Indian Removal".
  3. ^ The "Indian Trouble" (Video). 10:51–11:17: National Museum of the American Indian. March three, 2015. Event occurs at 12:21. Retrieved April 18, 2018. When you lot move a people from one place to another, when you displace people, when you lot wrench people from their homelands... wasn't that genocide? Nosotros don't make the case that there was genocide. Nosotros know at that place was. Yet here we are. {{cite AV media}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  4. ^ Thornton, Russell (1991). "The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Gauge of Cherokee Population Losses". In William 50. Anderson (ed.). Cherokee Removal: Before and Afterwards. pp. 75–93.
  5. ^ Prucha, Francis Paul (1995). The Great Male parent: The Us Authorities and the American Indians. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 241 note 58. ISBN0803287348.
  6. ^ Ehle, John (2011). Trail of Tears: The Rise and Autumn of the Cherokee Nation. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 390–392. ISBN9780307793836.
  7. ^ "A Brief History of the Trail of Tears". www.cherokee.org. Archived from the original on October eighteen, 2017. Retrieved October 17, 2017.
  8. ^ Rajiv Molhotra (2009). "The Challenge of Eurocentrism". In Rajani Kannepalli Kanth (ed.). The Claiming of Eurocentrism: Global Perspectives, Policy, and Prospects. Palgrave Macmillan U.s.. pp. 180, 184, 189, 199. ISBN978-0-230-61227-3.
  9. ^ Paul Finkelman; William Due west. Freehling; Tim Alan Garrison (2008). Paul Finkelman; Donald R. Kennon (eds.). Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism: From the Missouri Compromise to the Age of Jackson. Ohio University Press. pp. fifteen, 141, 254. ISBN978-0-8214-1783-half dozen.
  10. ^ a b Wilentz, Sean (2006). The Rise of American Commonwealth: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: W.West. Norton. p. 324. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
  11. ^ a b c Bartrop Paul R. & Jacobs, Steven Leonard (2014). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resources and Certificate Drove. ABC-CLIO. p. 2070. ISBN978-1-61069-364-6.
  12. ^ a b Howard Zinn (2012). Howard Zinn Speaks: Collected Speeches 1963–2009. Haymarket Books. p. 178. ISBN978-i-60846-228-5.
  13. ^ a b "Indian Removal Human action: The Genocide of Native Americans – UAB Found for Human Rights Weblog". sites.uab.edu . Retrieved Oct 16, 2021.
  14. ^ a b Stannard, David (1992). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press.
  15. ^ Sharon O'Brien, "Tribes and Indians: With whom does the United States maintain a relationship." Notre Dame Fifty. Rev. 66 (1990): 1461+
  16. ^ Franklin, Benjamin (2008) [1775]. "Journals of the Continental Congress – Franklin's Articles of Confederation; July 21, 1775". The Avalon Project: Documents in Police force, History and Diplomacy. New Oasis, CT: Yale Academy, Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved March 7, 2017. Cited is a digital version of the Journals of the Continental Congress 1774–1779, Vol. II, pp. 195–199, as edited from original records in the Library of Congress by Worthington Chauncey Ford. Primary source.
  17. ^ Frank Pommersheim (2009). Cleaved Landscape: Indians, Indian Tribes, and the Constitution. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN978-0-19-988828-3.
  18. ^ Michael Grossberg; Christopher Tomlins (2008). The Cambridge History of Law in America. Cambridge Upward. p. 56. ISBN978-0-521-80305-two.
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Further reading [edit]

  • Black, Jason Edward (2006). US Governmental and Native Voices in the Nineteenth Century: Rhetoric in the Removal and Allotment of American Indians. (PhD dissertation), College Park, MD: University of Maryland. See, for instance, the bibliography on pp. 571–615.
  • Ehle, John (1988). Trail of Tears: The Ascent and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 038523953X.
  • Jahoda, Gloria (1975). The Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removals 1813–1855. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0-03-014871-five.
  • Saunt, Claudio (2020). Unworthy republic: the dispossession of Native Americans and the route to Indian territory (Get-go ed.). New York: Due west. W. Norton & Company. ISBN978-0-393-60985-1.
  • Strickland, William K. "The rhetoric of removal and the trail of tears: Cherokee speaking against Jackson'due south Indian removal policy, 1828–1832" Southern Voice communication Journal (1982). 47#3: 292–309. [1]
  • Immature, Mary E. "Indian removal and land allotment: The civilized tribes and Jacksonian justice." American Historical Review 64.1 (1958): 31–45. online

Master sources [edit]

  • Martinez, Donna, ed. Documents of American Indian Removal (2018) extract

External links [edit]

  • PBS article on Indian Removal
  • Critical Resources: Text of the Removal Act and other documents.
  • Indian Removal from Digital History by South. Mintz

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