Home  ›  We Can Remove the Indians Again

We Can Remove the Indians Again

Written By Monday 21 March 2022 Add Comment Edit

Early 19th-century The states domestic policy

Indian removal
Trails of Tears en.png

Routes of southern removals
Location United States
Date 1830–1847
Target Native Americans in the eastern United states of america

Attack type

 Population transfer, indigenous cleansing, genocide
Deaths 8,000+ (lowest estimate)
Perpetrators United States
Motive Expansionism

Indian removal was the United States government policy of forced displacement of cocky-governing tribes of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands in the eastern Usa to lands due west of the Mississippi River – specifically, to a designated Indian Territory (roughly, present-twenty-four hours Oklahoma).[1] [2] [3] The Indian Removal Act, the cardinal law which authorized the removal of Native tribes, was signed by Andrew Jackson in 1830. Although Jackson took a hard line on Indian removal, the police was enforced primarily during the Martin Van Buren administration. After the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830, approximately 60,000 members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations (including thousands of their blackness slaves) were forcibly removed from their bequeathed homelands, with thousands dying during the Trail of Tears.[4] [5] [6] [7]

Indian removal, a popular policy among white settlers, was a consequence of actions past European settlers in North America during the colonial period and so past the United States government (and its citizens) until the mid-20th century.[8] [nine] The policy traced its origins to the assistants of James Monroe, although it addressed conflicts between European and Native Americans which had occurred since the 17th century and were escalating into the early 19th century (every bit white settlers pushed westward in the cultural belief of manifest destiny). Historical views of Indian removal have been reevaluated since that fourth dimension. Widespread contemporary credence of the policy, due in part to the popular encompass of the concept of manifest destiny, has given fashion to a more-somber perspective. Historians have described the removal of Native Americans equally paternalism,[10] [11] ethnic cleansing,[12] or genocide.[thirteen] [14]

Revolutionary background [edit]

American leaders in the Revolutionary and early on US eras debated about whether Native Americans should be treated as individuals or as nations.[fifteen]

Annunciation of Independence [edit]

In the indictment section of the Declaration of Independence, the Indigenous inhabitants of the Us are referred to as "merciless Indian Savages", reflecting a commonly held view at the time.

Benjamin Franklin [edit]

In a typhoon "Proposed Articles of Confederation" presented to the Continental Congress on May 10, 1775, Benjamin Franklin called for a "perpetual Brotherhood" with the Indians in the nation about to be born, especially with the six nations of the Iroquois Confederacy:[16] [17]

Article Eleven. A perpetual alliance offensive and defensive is to be entered into as soon as may be with the Six Nations; their Limits to exist ascertained and secured to them; their Country not to be encroached on, nor whatever private or Colony Purchases fabricated of them hereafter to be held good, nor any Contract for Lands to exist made just betwixt the Great Council of the Indians at Onondaga and the General Congress. The Boundaries and Lands of all the other Indians shall also exist ascertained and secured to them in the same way; and Persons appointed to reside among them in proper Districts, who shall accept care to forestall Injustice in the Merchandise with them, and exist enabled at our general Expense past occasional small Supplies, to relieve their personal Wants and Distresses. And all Purchases from them shall exist by the Congress for the General Advantage and Benefit of the United Colonies.

Early congressional acts [edit]

The Confederation Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (a precedent for U.S. territorial expansion would occur for years to come), calling for the protection of Native American "property, rights, and liberty";[18] the U.S. Constitution of 1787 (Article I, Department eight) made Congress responsible for regulating commerce with the Indian tribes. In 1790, the new U.S. Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes.[xix]

George Washington [edit]

President George Washington, in his 1790 accost to the Seneca Nation which called the pre-Constitutional Indian country-auction difficulties "evils", said that the instance was now altered and pledged to uphold Native American "just rights".[20] [21] In March and April 1792, Washington met with l tribal chiefs in Philadelphia—including the Iroquois—to discuss strengthening the friendship betwixt them and the U.s.a..[22] Later that twelvemonth, in his fourth almanac message to Congress, Washington stressed the need to build peace, trust, and commerce with Native Americans:[23]

I cannot dismiss the subject of Indian affairs without once again recommending to your consideration the expediency of more acceptable provision for giving energy to the laws throughout our interior borderland, and for restraining the commission of outrages upon the Indians; without which all pacific plans must prove nugatory. To enable, by competent rewards, the employment of qualified and trusty persons to reside among them, every bit agents, would too contribute to the preservation of peace and adept neighbourhood. If, in addition to these expedients, an eligible plan could be devised for promoting civilization among the friendly tribes, and for carrying on trade with them, upon a scale equal to their wants, and nether regulations calculated to protect them from imposition and extortion, its influence in cementing their interests with our'southward [sic] could not but be considerable.[24]

In his 7th almanac message to Congress in 1795, Washington intimated that if the U.Southward. government wanted peace with the Indians information technology must acquit peacefully; if the U.Southward. wanted raids by Indians to stop, raids by American "frontier inhabitants" must also stop.[25] [26]

Thomas Jefferson [edit]

In his Notes on the Country of Virginia (1785), Thomas Jefferson defended Native American culture and marvelled at how the tribes of Virginia "never submitted themselves to whatsoever laws, whatever coercive power, any shadow of regime" due to their "moral sense of right and incorrect".[27] [28] He wrote to the Marquis de Chastellux later that year, "I believe the Indian so to be in body and mind equal to the whiteman".[29] Jefferson's desire, as interpreted by Francis Paul Prucha, was for Native Americans to intermix with European Americans and become ane people.[thirty] [31] To achieve that end as president, Jefferson offered U.Southward. citizenship to some Indian nations and proposed offering them credit to facilitate trade.[32] [33]

By 1803, however, in a alphabetic character to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson made it clear he saw the necessity of dispossessing Native Americans of their lands:

In this style our settlements will gradually circumbscribe & arroyo the Indians, & they will in time either incorporate with us as citizens of the United states of america. or remove across the Missisipi.The sometime is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves. Just in the whole course of this, information technology is essential to cultivate their beloved. As to their fear, we presume that our force & their weakness is at present so visible that they must see we accept only to shut our paw to crush them.[34]

Jeffersonian policy [edit]

As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far-reaching Indian policy with two primary goals. He wanted to clinch that the Native nations (not foreign nations) were tightly bound to the new United States, equally he considered the security of the nation to be paramount.[35] He also wanted to "civilize" them into adopting an agricultural, rather than a hunter-gatherer, lifestyle.[30] These goals would exist achieved through treaties and the evolution of merchandise.[36]

Jefferson initially promoted an American policy which encouraged Native Americans to become assimilated, or "civilized".[37] He fabricated sustained efforts to win the friendship and cooperation of many Native American tribes as president, repeatedly articulating his want for a united nation of whites and Indians[38] every bit in his November iii, 1802, letter to Seneca spiritual leader Handsome Lake:

Go along and then, blood brother, in the great reformation you take undertaken ... In all your enterprises for the practiced of your people, you may count with confidence on the assistance and protection of the The states, and on the sincerity and zeal with which I am myself animated in the furthering of this humane work. Yous are our brethren of the same land; we wish your prosperity equally brethren should exercise. Cheerio.[39]

When a delegation from the Cherokee Nation's Upper Towns lobbied Jefferson for the full and equal citizenship promised to Indians living in American territory past George Washington, his response indicated that he was willing to grant citizenship to those Indian nations who sought it.[xl] In his eighth almanac bulletin to Congress on November 8, 1808, he presented a vision of white and Indian unity:

With our Indian neighbors the public peace has been steadily maintained ... And, mostly, from a confidence that nosotros consider them as office of ourselves, and cherish with sincerity their rights and interests, the attachment of the Indian tribes is gaining strength daily... and will amply give u.s. for the justice and friendship practiced towards them ... [O]ne of the two cracking divisions of the Cherokee nation have at present nether consideration to solicit the citizenship of the United States, and to exist identified with u.s.a. in-laws and government, in such progressive manner equally we shall call up best.[41]

Every bit some of Jefferson'due south other writings illustrate, however, he was ambivalent about Indian assimilation and used the words "exterminate" and "extirpate" about tribes who resisted American expansion and were willing to fight for their lands.[42] Jefferson intended to change Indian lifestyles from hunting and gathering to farming, largely through "the decrease of game rendering their subsistence by hunting insufficient".[43] He expected the change to agriculture to make them dependent on white Americans for goods, and more probable to surrender their land or let themselves to be moved west of the Mississippi River.[44] [45] In an 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote:[46]

Should any tribe exist foolhardy plenty to have upward the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the but condition of peace, would be an instance to others, and a furtherance of our concluding consolidation.[47]

In that alphabetic character, Jefferson spoke about protecting the Indians from injustices perpetrated past whites:

Our system is to live in perpetual peace with the Indians, to cultivate an appreciating attachment from them, by everything just and liberal which nosotros can do for them within ... reason, and past giving them effectual protection against wrongs from our ain people.[48]

According to the treaty of February 27, 1819, the U.S. regime would offer citizenship and 640 acres (260 ha) of land per family to Cherokees who lived due east of the Mississippi.[49] [50] [51] Native American land was sometimes purchased, by treaty or under duress. The idea of land commutation, that Native Americans would give upwardly their land e of the Mississippi in substitution for a like amount of territory west of the river, was starting time proposed by Jefferson in 1803 and first incorporated into treaties in 1817 (years after the Jefferson presidency). The Indian Removal Act of 1830 included this concept.[45]

John C. Calhoun's plan [edit]

Under President James Monroe, Secretarial assistant of War John C. Calhoun devised the first plans for Indian removal. Monroe approved Calhoun's plans by late 1824 and, in a special message to the Senate on Jan 27, 1825, requested the creation of the Arkansaw and Indian Territories; the Indians e of the Mississippi would voluntarily exchange their lands for lands w of the river. The Senate accepted Monroe'due south request, and asked Calhoun to draft a nib which was killed in the House of Representatives past the Georgia delegation. President John Quincy Adams causeless the Calhoun–Monroe policy, and was adamant to remove the Indians past non-forceful means;[52] [53] Georgia refused to consent to Adams' request, forcing the president to forge a treaty with the Cherokees granting Georgia the Cherokee lands.[54] On July 26, 1827, the Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution (modeled on that of the United States) which declared that they were an independent nation with jurisdiction over their own lands. Georgia contended that it would not countenance a sovereign state within its ain territory, and asserted its authority over Cherokee territory.[55] When Andrew Jackson became president every bit the candidate of the newly-organized Democratic Political party, he agreed that the Indians should be forced to exchange their eastern lands for western lands (including relocation) and vigorously enforced Indian removal.[56] [54]

Opposition to removal from U.S. citizens [edit]

Although Indian removal was a popular policy, it was likewise opposed on legal and moral grounds; it also ran counter to the formal, customary diplomatic interaction between the federal government and the Native nations. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote the widely-published letter "A Protest Against the Removal of the Cherokee Indians from the State of Georgia" in 1838, soon before the Cherokee removal. Emerson criticizes the government and its removal policy, saying that the removal treaty was illegitimate; it was a "sham treaty", which the U.S. regime should not uphold.[57] He describes removal as "such a dereliction of all faith and virtues, such a denial of justice…in the dealing of a nation with its own allies and wards since the earth was made…a general expression of despondency, of disbelief, that any goodwill accrues from a remonstrance on an act of fraud advertizement robbery, appeared in those men to whom nosotros naturally turn for aid and counsel".[58] Emerson concludes his alphabetic character by saying that it should not be a political result, urging President Martin Van Buren to preclude the enforcement of Cherokee removal. Other people and social organizations throughout the country also opposed removal.[59]

Native American response to removal [edit]

Native groups reshaped their governments, fabricated constitutions and legal codes, and sent delegates to Washington to negotiate policies and treaties to uphold their autonomy and ensure federally-promised protection from white states.[60] They thought that acclimating, every bit the U.S. wanted them to, would stem removal policy and create a better relationship with the federal government and surrounding states.

Native American nations had differing views about removal. Although most wanted to remain on their native lands and do anything possible to ensure that, others believed that removal to a nonwhite area was their simply selection to maintain their autonomy and culture.[61] The U.S. used this division to forge removal treaties with (often) minority groups who became convinced that removal was the best pick for their people.[62] These treaties were often not acknowledged by almost of a nation'due south people. When Congress ratified the removal treaty, the federal government could apply military force to remove Native nations if they had moved (or had begun moving) by the date stipulated in the treaty.[ citation needed ]

Indian Removal Human action [edit]

See caption

When Andrew Jackson became president of the Usa in 1829, his government took a hard line on Indian removal;[63] Jackson abandoned his predecessors' policy of treating Indian tribes as separate nations, aggressively pursuing all Indians e of the Mississippi who claimed constitutional sovereignty and independence from country laws. They were to exist removed to reservations in Indian Territory, west of the Mississippi (present-solar day Oklahoma), where they could exist without state interference. At Jackson'due south request, Congress began a debate on an Indian-removal bill. Afterwards trigger-happy disagreement, the Senate passed the nib past a 28–19 vote; the Business firm had narrowly passed it, 102–97. Jackson signed the Indian Removal Human activity into law on May 30, 1830.[64]

That year, most of the Five Civilized Tribes—the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee—lived east of the Mississippi. The Indian Removal Act implemented federal-government policy towards its Indian populations, moving Native American tribes east of the Mississippi to lands w of the river. Although the act did not qualify the forced removal of indigenous tribes, it enabled the president to negotiate land-exchange treaties.[65]

Choctaw [edit]

On September 27, 1830, the Choctaw signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek and became the get-go Native American tribe to exist removed. The agreement was one of the largest transfers of land between the U.S. authorities and Native Americans which was not the result of war. The Choctaw signed abroad their remaining traditional homelands, opening them up for European-American settlement in Mississippi Territory. When the tribe reached Little Rock, a chief called its trek a "trail of tears and death".[66]

In 1831, French historian and political scientist Alexis de Tocqueville witnessed an exhausted group of Choctaw men, women and children emerging from the wood during an uncommonly cold winter near Memphis, Tennessee,[67] on their way to the Mississippi to be loaded onto a steamboat. He wrote,

In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't picket without feeling i's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil only sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We ... sentry the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.[68]

Cherokee [edit]

While the Indian Removal Human action fabricated the move of the tribes voluntary, it was often abused past government officials. The best-known example is the Treaty of New Echota, which was signed by a small-scale faction of twenty Cherokee tribal members (not the tribal leadership) on December 29, 1835.[69] Almost of the Cherokee later blamed the faction and the treaty for the tribe's forced relocation in 1838.[70] An estimated 4,000 Cherokee died in the march, which is known every bit the Trail of Tears.[71] Missionary organizer Jeremiah Evarts urged the Cherokee Nation to take its case to the U.S. Supreme Court.[72]

The Marshall court heard the case in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), but declined to dominion on its merits; the courtroom declaring that the Native American tribes were not sovereign nations, and could not "maintain an activeness" in U.S. courts.[73] [74] In an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), individual states had no authority in American Indian affairs.[75] [76]

The state of Georgia defied the Supreme Court ruling,[75] and the want of white settlers and land speculators for Indian lands continued unabated;[77] some whites claimed that Indians threatened peace and security. The Georgia legislature passed a constabulary forbidding whites from living on Indian territory later March 31, 1831, without a license from the state; this excluded white missionaries who opposed Indian removal.[78] [79]

Seminole [edit]

The Seminole refused to leave their Florida lands in 1835, leading to the Second Seminole War. Osceola was a Seminole leader of the people's fight against removal. Based in the Everglades, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the U.S. Army in a number of battles. In 1837, Osceola was duplicitously captured by order of U.S. General Thomas Jesup when Osceola came under a flag of truce to negotiate peace about Fort Peyton.[lxxx] Osceola died in prison house of illness; the war resulted in over one,500 U.S. deaths, and price the government $20 million.[81] Some Seminole traveled deeper into the Everglades, and others moved west. The removal continued, and a number of wars broke out over country.[ citation needed ]

Muskogee (Creek) [edit]

In the backwash of the Treaties of Fort Jackson and the Washington, the Muscogee were confined to a small strip of land in nowadays-day east central Alabama. The Creek national council signed the Treaty of Cusseta in 1832, ceding their remaining lands east of the Mississippi to the U.Southward. and accepting relocation to the Indian Territory. Most Muscogee were removed to the territory during the Trail of Tears in 1834, although some remained behind. Although the Creek War of 1836 ended government attempts to convince the Creek population to get out voluntarily, Creeks who had non participated in the war were not forced w (as others were). The Creek population was placed into camps and told that they would be relocated before long. Many Creek leaders were surprised by the quick deviation, simply could do little to challenge information technology. The xvi,000 Creeks were organized into five detachments who were to be sent to Fort Gibson. The Creek leaders did their best to negotiate improve conditions, and succeeded in obtaining wagons and medicine. To ready for the relocation, Creeks began to deconstruct their spiritual lives; they burned piles of lightwood over their ancestors' graves to honour their memories, and polished the sacred plates which would travel at the front end of each group. They also prepared financially, selling what they could not bring. Many were swindled by local merchants out of valuable possessions (including land), and the military had to intervene. The detachments began moving west in September 1836, facing harsh conditions. Despite their preparations, the detachments faced bad roads, worse weather condition, and a lack of drinkable water. When all five detachments reached their destination, they recorded their death price. The first detachment, with two,318 Creeks, had 78 deaths; the 2d had three,095 Creeks, with 37 deaths. The third had 2,818 Creeks, and 12 deaths; the fourth, 2,330 Creeks and 36 deaths. The 5th detachment, with 2,087 Creeks, had 25 deaths.[82]

Friends and Brothers – Past permission of the Great Spirit to a higher place, and the vocalization of the people, I have been made President of the U.s., and at present speak to you as your Father and friend, and asking you to heed. Your warriors accept known me long. Yous know I love my white and cherry children, and always speak with a straight, and not with a forked tongue; that I take always told you the truth ... Where y'all now are, you lot and my white children are too almost to each other to live in harmony and peace. Your game is destroyed, and many of your people volition not piece of work and till the earth. Across the great River Mississippi, where a office of your nation has gone, your Father has provided a state big enough for all of you, and he advises you to remove to it. At that place your white brothers volition non trouble you; they volition have no claim to the country, and y'all can alive upon it you and all your children, as long as the grass grows or the water runs, in peace and enough. Information technology will exist yours forever. For the improvements in the country where y'all now live, and for all the stock which y'all cannot take with y'all, your Begetter will pay yous a fair price ...

—President Andrew Jackson addressing the Creek Nation, 1829[64]

Chickasaw [edit]

Unlike other tribes, who exchanged lands, the Chickasaw were to receive financial compensation of $3 million from the United states for their lands east of the Mississippi River.[83] [84] They reached an agreement to buy of land from the previously-removed Choctaw in 1836 later a bitter five-year argue, paying the Chocktaw $530,000 for the westernmost Choctaw land.[85] [86] Most of the Chickasaw moved in 1837 and 1838.[87] The $iii meg owed to the Chickasaw past the U.Due south. went unpaid for about 30 years.[88]

Aftermath [edit]

The Five Civilized Tribes were resettled in the new Indian Territory.[89] The Cherokee occupied the northeast corner of the territory and a 70-mile-wide (110 km) strip of land in Kansas on its border with the territory.[90] Some indigenous nations resisted the forced migration more strongly.[91] [92] The few who stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups,[93] including the Eastern Band of Cherokee (based in Due north Carolina),[94] [95] [96] the Mississippi Ring of Choctaw Indians,[97] [98] the Seminole Tribe of Florida,[99] [100] [101] and the Creeks in Alabama[102] (including the Poarch Band).[103] [104] [105]

Removals [edit]

Due north [edit]

Tribes in the Sometime Northwest were smaller and more fragmented than the Five Civilized Tribes, so the treaty and emigration procedure was more piecemeal.[106] Following the Northwest Indian State of war, most of the mod state of Ohio was taken from native nations in the 1795 Treaty of Greenville. Tribes such as the already-displaced Lenape (Delaware tribe), Kickapoo and Shawnee, were removed from Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio during the 1820s.[107] The Potawatomi were forced out of Wisconsin and Michigan in belatedly 1838, and were resettled in Kansas Territory. Communities remaining in present-day Ohio were forced to move to Louisiana, which was then controlled by Spain.[108]

Bands of Shawnee,[109] Ottawa, Potawatomi,[110] Sauk, and Meskwaki (Trick) signed treaties and relocated to the Indian Territory.[111] In 1832, the Sauk leader Black Hawk led a ring of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois; the U.S. Army and Illinois militia defeated Blackness Hawk and his warriors in the Blackness Hawk War, and the Sauk and Pull a fast one on were relocated to present-day Iowa.[112] The Miami were split, with many of the tribe resettled due west of the Mississippi River during the 1840s.[113]

In the Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek (1838), the Senecas transferred all their land in New York (except for one small reservation) in exchange for 200,000 acres (810 km2) of land in Indian Territory. The federal government would exist responsible for the removal of the Senecas who opted to go westward, and the Ogden Country Company would acquire their New York lands. The lands were sold past government officials, however, and the proceeds were deposited in the U.S. Treasury. Maris Bryant Pierce, a "young principal" served as a lawyer representing iv territories of the Seneca tribe, starting in 1838.[114] [115] The Senecas asserted that they had been defrauded, and sued for redress in the Court of Claims. The case was not resolved until 1898, when the United states awarded $1,998,714.46 in compensation to "the New York Indians".[116] The U.S. signed treaties with the Senecas and the Tonawanda Senecas in 1842 and 1857, respectively. Under the treaty of 1857, the Tonawandas renounced all claim to lands west of the Mississippi in substitution for the right to buy back the Tonawanda Reservation from the Ogden State Company.[117] Over a century later, the Senecas purchased a 9-acre (three.6 ha) plot (part of their original reservation) in downtown Buffalo to build the Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino.[118]

S [edit]

Southern removals
Nation Population earlier removal Treaty and twelvemonth Major emigration Full removed Number remaining Deaths during removal Deaths from warfare
Choctaw xix,554[119] + White citizens of the Choctaw Nation + 500 Black slaves Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830) 1831–1836 xv,000[120] 5,000–vi,000[121] [122] [123] two,000–four,000+ (cholera) none
Creek (Muscogee) 22,700 + 900 Black slaves[124] Cusseta (1832) 1834–1837 19,600[125] Several hundred 3,500 (illness subsequently removal)[126] Unknown (Creek War of 1836)
Chickasaw four,914 + i,156 Blackness slaves[127] Pontotoc Creek (1832) 1837–1847 over iv,000[127] Several hundred 500–800 none
Cherokee 16,542 + 201 married White + one,592 Black slaves[128] New Echota (1835) 1836–1838 16,000[129] 1,500 2,000–4,000[130] [131] none
Seminole 3,700–5,000[132] + fugitive slaves Payne'southward Landing (1832) 1832–1842 2,833[133]–four,000[134] 250[133]–500[135] 700 (Second Seminole War)

Inverse perspective [edit]

Historical views of Indian removal take been reevaluated since that time. Widespread contemporary credence of the policy, due in part to the pop cover of the concept of manifest destiny, has given style to a more than-somber perspective. The removals have been described by historians to paternalism,[10] [xi] ethnic cleansing,[12] or genocide. Historian David Stannard has called it genocide.[13] [14]

Jackson's reputation [edit]

Andrew Jackson's reputation has been negatively impacted by his handling of the Indians. Historians who admire Jackson's strong presidential leadership, such equally Arthur Thousand. Schlesinger, Jr., would gloss over the Indian Removal in a footnote. In 1969, Francis Paul Prucha wrote that Jackson's removal of the Five Civilized Tribes from the hostile white environs of the Old Due south to Oklahoma probably saved them.[136] Jackson was sharply attacked by political scientist Michael Rogin and historian Howard Zinn during the 1970s, primarily on this effect; Zinn chosen him an "exterminator of Indians".[137] [138] According to historians Paul R. Bartrop and Steven L. Jacobs, still, Jackson's policies practise not run into the criteria for physical or cultural genocide.[xi]

See as well [edit]

  • Human activity for the Protection of the People of Indian Territory (Curtis Act), 1898
  • Forced Fee Patenting Act (Burke Act), 1906
  • Wheeler–Howard Deed
  • Nelson Act of 1889, Minnesota's version of the Dawes Act
  • Cultural assimilation of Native Americans
  • Aboriginal title in the U.s.
  • Competency Commission
  • Land run
  • Diminishment
  • Bully Māhele
  • Land Buy-Dorsum Program for Tribal Nations
  • Checkerboarding (land)
  • Dawes Act

Citations and notes [edit]

  1. ^ Information technology has been called indigenous cleansing. The National Museum of the American Indian refers to the policy as genocide.
  2. ^ Gary Clayton Anderson (2014). Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Law-breaking That Should Haunt America. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 7. ISBN978-0-8061-4508-2. Even though the term "indigenous cleansing" has been practical mainly to the history of nations other than the Us, no term better fits the policy of U.s.a. "Indian Removal".
  3. ^ The "Indian Trouble" (Video). 10:51–11:17: National Museum of the American Indian. March three, 2015. Event occurs at 12:21. Retrieved April 18, 2018. When you lot move a people from one place to another, when you displace people, when you lot wrench people from their homelands... wasn't that genocide? Nosotros don't make the case that there was genocide. Nosotros know at that place was. Yet here we are. {{cite AV media}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  4. ^ Thornton, Russell (1991). "The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period: A New Gauge of Cherokee Population Losses". In William 50. Anderson (ed.). Cherokee Removal: Before and Afterwards. pp. 75–93.
  5. ^ Prucha, Francis Paul (1995). The Great Male parent: The Us Authorities and the American Indians. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 241 note 58. ISBN0803287348.
  6. ^ Ehle, John (2011). Trail of Tears: The Rise and Autumn of the Cherokee Nation. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 390–392. ISBN9780307793836.
  7. ^ "A Brief History of the Trail of Tears". www.cherokee.org. Archived from the original on October eighteen, 2017. Retrieved October 17, 2017.
  8. ^ Rajiv Molhotra (2009). "The Challenge of Eurocentrism". In Rajani Kannepalli Kanth (ed.). The Claiming of Eurocentrism: Global Perspectives, Policy, and Prospects. Palgrave Macmillan U.s.. pp. 180, 184, 189, 199. ISBN978-0-230-61227-3.
  9. ^ Paul Finkelman; William Due west. Freehling; Tim Alan Garrison (2008). Paul Finkelman; Donald R. Kennon (eds.). Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism: From the Missouri Compromise to the Age of Jackson. Ohio University Press. pp. fifteen, 141, 254. ISBN978-0-8214-1783-half dozen.
  10. ^ a b Wilentz, Sean (2006). The Rise of American Commonwealth: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: W.West. Norton. p. 324. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
  11. ^ a b c Bartrop Paul R. & Jacobs, Steven Leonard (2014). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resources and Certificate Drove. ABC-CLIO. p. 2070. ISBN978-1-61069-364-6.
  12. ^ a b Howard Zinn (2012). Howard Zinn Speaks: Collected Speeches 1963–2009. Haymarket Books. p. 178. ISBN978-i-60846-228-5.
  13. ^ a b "Indian Removal Human action: The Genocide of Native Americans – UAB Found for Human Rights Weblog". sites.uab.edu . Retrieved Oct 16, 2021.
  14. ^ a b Stannard, David (1992). American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World. Oxford University Press.
  15. ^ Sharon O'Brien, "Tribes and Indians: With whom does the United States maintain a relationship." Notre Dame Fifty. Rev. 66 (1990): 1461+
  16. ^ Franklin, Benjamin (2008) [1775]. "Journals of the Continental Congress – Franklin's Articles of Confederation; July 21, 1775". The Avalon Project: Documents in Police force, History and Diplomacy. New Oasis, CT: Yale Academy, Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved March 7, 2017. Cited is a digital version of the Journals of the Continental Congress 1774–1779, Vol. II, pp. 195–199, as edited from original records in the Library of Congress by Worthington Chauncey Ford. Primary source.
  17. ^ Frank Pommersheim (2009). Cleaved Landscape: Indians, Indian Tribes, and the Constitution. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN978-0-19-988828-3.
  18. ^ Michael Grossberg; Christopher Tomlins (2008). The Cambridge History of Law in America. Cambridge Upward. p. 56. ISBN978-0-521-80305-two.
  19. ^ James D. St. Clair and William F. Lee. "Defense of Nonintercourse Deed Claims: The Requirement of Tribal Existence." Maine Law Review 31. no. 1 (1979): 91+
  20. ^ New York Supplement, New York State Reporter. Vol. 146. St. Paul: West Publishing Company. 1909. p. 191.
  21. ^ "Washington's Address to the Senecas, 1790". uoregon.edu . Retrieved March 8, 2017.
  22. ^ Sharon Malinowski; George H. J. Abrams (1995). Notable Native Americans. Gale Research. p. 356. ISBN978-0-8103-9638-viii.
  23. ^ Mathew Manweller (2012). Chronology of the U.S. Presidency. ABC-CLIO. p. fourteen. ISBN978-one-59884-645-4.
  24. ^ "Fourth Annual Message to Congress (Nov six, 1792)". millercenter.org. Charlottesville, Virginia: Academy of Virginia. Archived from the original on Feb thirteen, 2016. Retrieved July xv, 2017.
  25. ^ "Seventh Annual Message to Congress (Dec 8, 1795)". millercenter.org. Charlottesville, VA: Academy of Virginia. Archived from the original on December 28, 2016. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  26. ^ Wayne Moquin; Charles Lincoln Van Doren (1973). Peachy Documents in American Indian History. Praeger. p. 105.
  27. ^ Jefferson, Thomas (1782). "Notes on the State of Virginia". Revolutionary War and Across. Revolutionary War and Beyond. Retrieved July fourteen, 2014. Primary source.
  28. ^ Peter S. Onuf (2000). Jefferson's Empire: The Linguistic communication of American Nationhood . University of Virginia Printing. p. 24. ISBN978-0-8139-2204-1.
  29. ^ Winthrop D. Jordan (1974). The White Human being's Burden: Historical Origins of Racism in the Us . Oxford University Press. p. 178. ISBN978-0-19-501743-iv.
  30. ^ a b Francis Paul Prucha (1985). The Indians in American Order: From the Revolutionary War to the Present . University of California Press. p. 6. ISBN978-0-520-90884-0.
  31. ^ Francis Paul Prucha (1997). American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly. University of California Printing. p. 136. ISBN978-0-520-91916-vii.
  32. ^ James West. Fraser (2016). Between Church and Country: Religion and Public Education in a Multicultural America. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 89. ISBN978-ane-4214-2059-2.
  33. ^ Jefferson, Thomas (1782). "Letter of the alphabet to Governor William H. Harrison". The Writings of Thomas Jefferson. The Pennsylvania Land Academy Libraries. p. 370. Retrieved July fourteen, 2014. Primary source.
  34. ^ "Founders Online: From Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, 27 February i …". founders.archives.gov . Retrieved Oct 27, 2021.
  35. ^ "President Jefferson and the Indian Nations". Monticello . Retrieved July xiii, 2020.
  36. ^ Colin K. Calloway (1998). New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early on America. JHU Press. p. 179. ISBN978-0-8018-5959-5.
  37. ^ Robert W. Tucker; David C. Hendrickson (1992). Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson. Oxford Academy Press. pp. 305–306. ISBN978-0-19-802276-3.
  38. ^ Katherine A. Hermes (2008). Michael Grossberg; Christopher Tomlins (eds.). The Cambridge History of Police in America. Vol. I, Early on America (1580–1815). Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN978-0-521-80305-2.
  39. ^ Thomas Jefferson (June 29, 2017). "From Thomas Jefferson to Handsome Lake, 3 November 1802". Founders Online. National Athenaeum and Records Administration. Retrieved July xvi, 2017. [Original source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 38, one July–12 November 1802, ed. Barbara B. Oberg. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011, pp. 628–631.]
  40. ^ William Gerald McLoughlin (1992). Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic. Princeton Academy Press. pp. xv, 132. ISBN978-0-691-00627-seven.
  41. ^ "8th Almanac Message (November eight, 1808) Thomas Jefferson". millercenter.org. University of Virginia. December 28, 2016. Archived from the original on February xiii, 2016. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
  42. ^ Robert J. Miller (2006). Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 92–93. ISBN978-0-275-99011-4.
  43. ^ Jason Edward Black (2015). American Indians and the Rhetoric of Removal and Resource allotment. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 50. ISBN978-1-62674-485-1.
  44. ^ Jay H. Buckley (2008). William Clark: Indian Diplomat. University of Oklahoma Printing. p. 193. ISBN978-0-8061-3911-1. There is no dubiousness that Jefferson wanted to go Indians into debt then that he could lop off their holdings through state cessions.
  45. ^ a b Paul R. Bartrop; Steven Leonard Jacobs (2014). Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. p. 2070. ISBN978-ane-61069-364-6.
  46. ^ Francis Paul Prucha (2000). Documents of U.s. Indian Policy. U of Nebraska Press. p. 22. ISBN978-0-8032-8762-4.
  47. ^ Jefferson, Thomas (1803). "President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory". Retrieved March 12, 2009. When they withdraw themselves to the culture of a small-scale piece of land, they will perceive how useless to them are their all-encompassing forests, and volition be willing to peel them off from fourth dimension to time in commutation for necessaries for their farms and families. To promote this disposition to substitution lands, which they have to spare and we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall push our trading uses, and be glad to encounter the good and influential individuals among them run in debt, considering we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands. At our trading houses, too, nosotros mean to sell so depression as merely to repay us price and charges, so every bit neither to lessen or enlarge our upper-case letter. This is what private traders cannot practise, for they must gain; they volition consequently retire from the competition, and nosotros shall thus get articulate of this pest without giving offence or umbrage to the Indians. In this manner our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, and they will in time either contain with u.s. as citizens of the Usa, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The sometime is certainly the termination of their history well-nigh happy for themselves; but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our forcefulness and their weakness is now and so visible that they must run into we have but to close our hand to beat out them, and that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to have upward the hatchet at any fourth dimension, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, every bit the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation. Main source.
  48. ^ Texts by or to Thomas Jefferson (2005). "Excerpt from President Jefferson's Private Alphabetic character to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory February 27, 1803". adl.org. Anti-Defamation League. Archived from the original (Modern English Collection, Electronic Text Centre, Academy of Virginia Library) on June one, 2016. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
  49. ^ William Gerald McLoughlin (1992). Cherokee Renascence in the New Democracy. Princeton Academy Press. p. 256. ISBN978-0-691-00627-7.
  50. ^ Charles Joseph Kappler, ed. (1903). Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. two. U.S. Regime Printing Office. p. 124.
  51. ^ William G. McLoughlin (Spring 1981). "Experiment in Cherokee Citizenship, 1817–1829". American Quarterly. 33 (1): 3–25. doi:10.2307/2712531. JSTOR 2712531.
  52. ^ John K. Mahon (1991). History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842. Academy Presses of Florida. p. 57. ISBN978-0-8130-1097-7.
  53. ^ Paul E. Teed (2006). John Quincy Adams: Yankee Nationalist. Nova Publishers. p. 104. ISBN978-1-59454-797-3.
  54. ^ a b Kathy Warnes (2016). "Cherokee Nation vs, Georgia, Forced Removal of Indian Tribes (1831)". In Steven Chermak; Frankie Y. Bailey (eds.). Crimes of the Centuries: Notorious Crimes, Criminals, and Criminal Trials in American History [3 volumes] Notorious Crimes, Criminals, and Criminal Trials in American History. ABC-CLIO. p. 155. ISBN978-1-61069-594-7.
  55. ^ Francis Paul Prucha (1995). The Great Begetter: The United states Authorities and the American Indians. U of Nebraska Press. p. 189. ISBN978-0-8032-8734-1.
  56. ^ John Chiliad. Mahon (1991). History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842. Academy Presses of Florida. p. 72. ISBN978-0-8130-1097-seven.
  57. ^ Sturgis, Amy (2007). The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Printing. p. 135. ISBN978-0313336584.
  58. ^ Sturgis, Amy (2007). The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Printing. pp. 136–137. ISBN978-0313336584.
  59. ^ Satz, Ronald N. (1975). American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era. Academy of Oklahoma Press. p. 42. ISBN0-8061-3432-1.
  60. ^ Perdue, Theda (2016). The Cherokee Removal: A Cursory History with Documents (3rd ed.). Boston: Bedford/St.Martin's. p. 12. ISBN978-1-319-04902-7.
  61. ^ Faiman-Silva, Sandra (1997). Choctaws at the Crossroads. Academy of Nebraska Printing. p. 18. ISBN0-8032-2001-4.
  62. ^ Perdue, Theda (2016). The Cherokee Removal: A Cursory History with Documents (third ed.). Boston: Bedford/St.Martin's. p. 150. ISBN978-i-319-04902-seven.
  63. ^ Ronald North. Satz; Laura Apfelbeck (1996). Chippewa Treaty Rights: The Reserved Rights of Wisconsin'due south Chippewa Indians in Historical Perspective. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 10. ISBN978-0-299-93022-half-dozen.
  64. ^ a b Kane, Sharyn & Keeton, Richard (1994). "As Long as Grass Grows [Ch. 11]". Fort Benning: The Country and the People. Fort Benning, GA and Tallahassee, FL: U.S. Army Infantry Eye, Directorate of Public Works, Environmental Management Sectionalisation, and National Park Service, Southeast Archaeological Center. pp. 95–104. ISBN978-0-8061-1172-8. OCLC 39804148. Archived from the original on August 17, 2007. Retrieved March 7, 2017. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) The work is also available from the U.S. Army, as a Benning History/Fort Benning the Land and the People.pdf PDF.
  65. ^ Chris J. Magoc (2015). Imperialism and Expansionism in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection [iv volumes]: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection. ABC-CLIO. p. 400. ISBN978-i-61069-430-8.
  66. ^ Faiman-Silva, Sandra (1997). Choctaws at the Crossroads . Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. p. 19. ISBN978-0-8032-6902-half dozen . Retrieved March eight, 2017.
  67. ^ Thomas Ruys Smith (2007). River of Dreams: Imagining the Mississippi Before Marker Twain . Louisiana State Academy Press. p. 77. ISBN978-0-8071-4307-0.
  68. ^ George Wilson Pierson (1938). Tocqueville in America. Johns Hopkins Printing. p. 598. ISBN978-0-8018-5506-1.
  69. ^ Laurence French (2007). Legislating Indian Country: Pregnant Milestones in Transforming Tribalism . Peter Lang. p. 50. ISBN978-0-8204-8844-8.
  70. ^ Amy H. Sturgis (2007). The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 119–. ISBN978-0-313-33658-four.
  71. ^ Russell Thornton (1992). The Cherokees: A Population History. U of Nebraska Press. p. 74. ISBN978-0-8032-9410-3.
  72. ^ John A. Andrew, III (2007). From Revivals to Removal: Jeremiah Evarts, the Cherokee Nation, and the Search for the Soul of America. University of Georgia Press. p. 234. ISBN978-0-8203-3121-8.
  73. ^ Frederick Eastward. Hoxie (1984). A Final Promise: The Entrada to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920. U of Nebraska Press. p. 214. ISBN978-0-8032-7327-6. The court has bestowed its all-time attention on this question, and, afterwards mature deliberation, the majority is of the opinion that an Indian tribe or nation inside the United States is non a strange country in the sense of the constitution, and cannot maintain an action in the courts of the United States.
  74. ^ Charles F. Hobson (2012). The Papers of John Marshall: Vol XII: Correspondence, Papers, and Selected Judicial Opinions, January 1831 – July 1835, with Addendum, June 1783 – January 1829. UNC Press Books. p. threescore. ISBN978-0-8078-3885-three.
  75. ^ a b Henry Thompson Malone (2010). Cherokees of the Old South: A People in Transition. Academy of Georgia Printing. p. 178. ISBN978-0-8203-3542-ane.
  76. ^ Robert V. Remini (2013). Andrew Jackson: The Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832. Johns Hopkins Academy Press. pp. 276–277. ISBN978-1-4214-1329-7.
  77. ^ "America's Indian Removal Policies: Tales & Trails of Betrayal Indian Policy During Andrew Jackson's Presidency (1829–1837)" (PDF). civics.sites.unc.edu. University of North Carolina. May 2012. p. 15. Retrieved July fourteen, 2017.
  78. ^ Ronald N. Satz (1974). American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 47. ISBN978-0-8061-3432-1.
  79. ^ Brian Black; Donna L. Lybecker (2008). Neat Debates in American Environmental History. Greenwood Press. p. 56. ISBN978-0-313-33931-8.
  80. ^ Patricia Riles Wickman (2006). Osceola'south Legacy. University of Alabama Press. p. 85. ISBN978-0-8173-5332-ii.
  81. ^ Spencer Tucker; James R. Arnold; Roberta Wiener (2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and War machine History. ABC-CLIO. p. 719. ISBN978-1-85109-697-8.
  82. ^ Haveman, Christopher D. (2016). Rivers of Sand : Creek Indian emigration, relocation, and ethnic cleansing in the American South. Removal of the Creek Indians from the Southeast: University of Nebraska. pp. 200–233. ISBN978-0-8032-7392-iv.
  83. ^ Jesse Clifton Burt; Robert B. Ferguson (1973). Indians of the Southeast: Then and Now . Abingdon Printing. pp. 170–173. ISBN978-0-687-18793-five.
  84. ^ Thomas Dionysius Clark (1996). The Old Southwest, 1795-1830: Frontiers in Disharmonize. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 250. ISBN978-0-8061-2836-viii.
  85. ^ James P. Pate (2009). "Chickasaw The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Civilisation". okhistory.org. Oklahoma Historical Society. Archived from the original on July 22, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2017.
  86. ^ Arrell M. Gibson (2012). The Chickasaws. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 217. ISBN978-0-8061-8864-five.
  87. ^ Blueish Clark (2012). Indian Tribes of Oklahoma: A Guide. Academy of Oklahoma Press. p. 99. ISBN978-0-8061-8461-6.
  88. ^ James Minahan (2013). Indigenous Groups of the Americas: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 95. ISBN978-1-61069-163-5.
  89. ^ Arrell Morgan Gibson (1984). The History of Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 31. ISBN978-0-8061-1883-three.
  90. ^ Rusty Williams (2016). The Red River Span War: A Texas-Oklahoma Border Battle. Texas A&M Academy Press. p. 13. ISBN978-1-62349-406-3.
  91. ^ Christopher Arris Oakley (2005). Keeping the Circle: American Indian Identity in Eastern N Carolina, 1885-2004. U of Nebraska Press. p. 9. ISBN978-0-8032-5069-7.
  92. ^ Gary Clayton Anderson (2014). Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Criminal offence That Should Haunt America. Academy of Oklahoma Press. p. 161. ISBN978-0-8061-4508-two.
  93. ^ Mikaela K. Adams (2016). Who Belongs?: Race, Resources, and Tribal Citizenship in the Native Due south. Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN978-0-nineteen-061947-3.
  94. ^ John R. Finger (1984). The Eastern Band of Cherokees, 1819–1900 . Univ. of Tennessee Press. p. xii. ISBN978-0-87049-410-9.
  95. ^ Jessica Joyce Christie (2009). Landscapes of Origin in the Americas: Cosmos Narratives Linking Ancient Places and Present Communities. University of Alabama Press. p. 14. ISBN978-0-8173-5560-9.
  96. ^ Benjamin A. Steere (2017). "Collaborative Archaeology as a Tool For Preserving Sacred Sites in the Cherokee Heartland". In Fausto Sarmiento; Sarah Hitchner (eds.). Indigeneity and the Sacred: Ethnic Revival and the Conservation of Sacred Natural Sites in the Americas. Berghahn Books. p. 165. ISBN978-1-78533-397-2.
  97. ^ Samuel J. Wells (2010). "Introduction". In Samuel J. Wells; Roseanna Tubby (eds.). After Removal: The Choctaw in Mississippi. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. ix. ISBN978-1-61703-084-0.
  98. ^ Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr.; James W. Parins, eds. (2011). "Alabama and Indian Removal". Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal. Vol. one. ABC-CLIO. p. 7. ISBN978-0-313-36041-1.
  99. ^ Brent Richards Weisman (1989). Like Chaplet on a String: A Civilisation History of the Seminole Indians in North Peninsular Florida . Academy of Alabama Press. p. 38. ISBN978-0-8173-0411-9.
  100. ^ David Heidler; Jeanne Heidler (2003). Old Hickory's War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire. LSU Press. p. 33. ISBN978-0-8071-2867-ane.
  101. ^ William C. Sturtevant (2008). Handbook of Due north American Indians. Government Printing Office. p. 128. ISBN978-0-xvi-080388-eight.
  102. ^ James F. Barnett (2012). Mississippi's American Indians. Univ. Printing of Mississippi. p. 264. ISBN978-one-61703-246-2.
  103. ^ William C. Sturtevant (2008). Handbook of North American Indians. Regime Printing Function. p. 123. ISBN978-0-xvi-080388-eight.
  104. ^ Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr.; James W. Parins (2011). Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal. ABC-CLIO. pp. 8–ix. ISBN978-0-313-36041-1.
  105. ^ Keith S. Hébert (2017). "Poarch Band of Creek Indians". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Auburn University. Archived from the original on June fifteen, 2017. Retrieved July 20, 2017.
  106. ^ Linda S. Parker (1996). Native American Estate: The Struggle Over Indian and Hawaiian Lands. University of Hawaii Printing. pp. 36–37. ISBN978-0-8248-1807-iv.
  107. ^ Jay P. Kinney (1975). A Continent Lost, a Civilization Won: Indian Land Tenure in America. Octagon Books. p. 73. ISBN978-0-374-94576-3.
  108. ^ John P. Bowes (2014). "American Indian Removal beyond the Removal Act". Wicazo Sa Review. one (ane): 65. doi:10.5749/natiindistudj.ane.1.0065. ISSN 0749-6427.
  109. ^ Edward S. Curtis (1930). The North American Indian. Book 19 – The Indians of Oklahoma. The Wichita. The southern Cheyenne. The Oto. The Comanche. The Peyote cult. Edward S. Curtis. p. 21. ISBN978-0-7426-9819-2.
  110. ^ R. David Edmunds (1978). The Potawatomis: Keepers of the Fire . University of Oklahoma Press. p. 270. ISBN978-0-8061-2069-0.
  111. ^ Michael D. Dark-green (2008). ""Nosotros Trip the light fantastic in Opposite Directions": Mesquakie (Play a trick on) Separatism from the Sac and Fox Tribe*". In Marvin Bergman (ed.). Iowa History Reader. University of Iowa Press. p. 28. ISBN978-i-60938-011-3.
  112. ^ Lewis, James (2000). "The Black Hawk War of 1832". DeKalb, IL: Abraham Lincoln Digitization Projection, Northern Illinois University. p. 2nd. Archived from the original on June 19, 2009. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
  113. ^ Kathleen Tigerman (2006). Wisconsin Indian Literature: Anthology of Native Voices. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 160. ISBN978-0-299-22064-8.
  114. ^ Johansen, Bruce Elliott; Mann, Barbara Alice (2000). Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy). Greenwood Publishing Grouping. p. 249. ISBN978-0-313-30880-2.
  115. ^ Littlefield, Jr., Daniel F.; Parins, James W. (Jan 19, 2011). Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 173. ISBN978-0-313-36042-8.
  116. ^ Laurence M. Hauptman (2014). In the Shadow of Kinzua: The Seneca Nation of Indians since Globe War II. Syracuse University Press. p. 192. ISBN978-0-8156-5238-0.
  117. ^ John P. Bowes (2011). "Ogden State Company". In Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr. (ed.). Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal. James Due west. Parins. ABC-CLIO. p. 158. ISBN978-0-313-36041-1.
  118. ^ Margaret Wooster (2009). Living Waters: Reading the Rivers of the Lower Great Lakes. SUNY Printing. p. 58. ISBN978-0-7914-7712-0.
  119. ^ Grant Foreman (1972). Indian Removal: The Emigration of the 5 Civilized Tribes of Indians. University of Oklahoma Printing. pp. 47, note 10 (1830 census). ISBN978-0-8061-1172-8.
  120. ^ Satz, Ronald (1986). "The Mississippi Choctaw: From the Removal Treaty to the Federal Bureau". In Samuel J. Wells and Roseanna Tubby (ed.). After Removal, The Choctaw in Mississippi. Jackson and London: University Printing of Mississippi. p. 7.
  121. ^ Several 1000 more than emigrated W from 1844 to 1849; Foreman, pp. 103–104.
  122. ^ Baird, David (1973). "The Choctaws Encounter the Americans, 1783 to 1843". The Choctaw People. United States: Indian Tribal Series. p. 36. LCCN 73-80708.
  123. ^ Walter, Williams (1979). "Three Efforts at Development amongst the Choctaws of Mississippi". Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era. Athens, Georgia: Academy of Georgia Press.
  124. ^ Foreman, p. 111 (1832 census).
  125. ^ Remini 2001, p. 272.
  126. ^ Russell Thornton (1992). "The Demography of the Trail of Tears Menstruum: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses". In William L. Anderson (ed.). Cherokee Removal: Before and Later on. University of Georgia Press. p. 85. ISBN978-0-8203-1482-2.
  127. ^ a b "Chickasaw". The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Civilization . Retrieved May iv, 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  128. ^ "Eastern Cherokee Demography Rolls, 1835–1884" (PDF). National Archives and Records Assistants. 2005. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  129. ^ Prucha, Francis Paul (1995). The Great Father: The Usa Regime and the American Indians. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 241 note 58. ISBN0803287348.
  130. ^ Ehle, John (2011). Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Grouping. pp. 390–392. ISBN9780307793836.
  131. ^ Thornton, Russell (1991). "The Demography of the Trail of Tears Flow: A New Estimate of Cherokee Population Losses". In William Fifty. Anderson (ed.). Cherokee Removal: Earlier and After. pp. 75–93.
  132. ^ Swanton, John Reed (1922). Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors, Effect 73. Washington, D.C.: United states of america Regime Printing Function. p. 443.
  133. ^ a b Francis Paul Prucha (1995). The Great Father: The United states of america Government and the American Indians. U of Nebraska Printing. p. 233. ISBN978-0-8032-8734-1.
  134. ^ Wallace, Anthony; Foner, Eric (1993). The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians. Macmillan. p. 101. ISBN978-0-8090-1552-eight.
  135. ^ Anthony Wallace; Eric Foner (1993). The Long, Biting Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 100–101. ISBN978-0-8090-1552-eight.
  136. ^ Prucha, Francis Paul (1969). "Andrew Jackson's Indian Policy: A Reassessment". Periodical of American History. 56 (3): 527–539. doi:10.2307/1904204. JSTOR 1904204.
  137. ^ Howard Zinn (2015). A People'due south History of the United States: 1492–Present. Routledge. p. 130. ISBN978-1-317-32530-7.
  138. ^ Barbara Alice Mann (2009). The Tainted Gift: The Disease Method of Frontier Expansion. ABC-CLIO. p. xx. ISBN978-0-313-35338-3.

Further reading [edit]

  • Black, Jason Edward (2006). US Governmental and Native Voices in the Nineteenth Century: Rhetoric in the Removal and Allotment of American Indians. (PhD dissertation), College Park, MD: University of Maryland. See, for instance, the bibliography on pp. 571–615.
  • Ehle, John (1988). Trail of Tears: The Ascent and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 038523953X.
  • Jahoda, Gloria (1975). The Trail of Tears: The Story of the American Indian Removals 1813–1855. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0-03-014871-five.
  • Saunt, Claudio (2020). Unworthy republic: the dispossession of Native Americans and the route to Indian territory (Get-go ed.). New York: Due west. W. Norton & Company. ISBN978-0-393-60985-1.
  • Strickland, William K. "The rhetoric of removal and the trail of tears: Cherokee speaking against Jackson'due south Indian removal policy, 1828–1832" Southern Voice communication Journal (1982). 47#3: 292–309. [1]
  • Immature, Mary E. "Indian removal and land allotment: The civilized tribes and Jacksonian justice." American Historical Review 64.1 (1958): 31–45. online

Master sources [edit]

  • Martinez, Donna, ed. Documents of American Indian Removal (2018) extract

External links [edit]

  • PBS article on Indian Removal
  • Critical Resources: Text of the Removal Act and other documents.
  • Indian Removal from Digital History by South. Mintz

johnsonprepireare.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_removal

0 Response to "We Can Remove the Indians Again"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel